The Oromo Oromo: Oromoo) are a Cushitic ethnic group and nation native to the Oromia region of Ethiopia and Kenya who speak the Oromo language as their mother tongue (also called Afaan Oromoo or Oromiffa), which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia and represent 34.5% of Ethiopia’s population.

Oromo used the gadaa system as the form of governance. A leader elected by the gadaa system remains in power for 8 years, with an election taking place at the end of those 8 years. Oromo has a traditional religion known as Waaqeffanna, an ancient monotheistic religion.

Origins and nomenclature

The origins and prehistory of the Oromo people prior to the 16th century are based on Oromo oral tradition. Older and subsequent colonial era documents mention the Oromo people as Galla, which has now developed derogatory connotations, but these documents were generally written by members of other ethnic groups. The first verifiable record mentioning the Oromo people by a European cartographer is in the map made by the Italian Fra Mauro in 1460, which uses the term “Galla”.

Fra Mauro’s term “Galla” is the most used term, however, until the early 20th century. The term, stated by Juxon Barton in 1924, was in use for Oromo people by Abyssinians and Arabs. It was a term for a river and a forest, as well as for the pastoral people established in the highlands of southern Ethiopia. This historical information, according to Mohammed Hassen, is consistent with the written and oral traditions of the Somalis. A journal published by International African Institute suggests it is an Oromo word (adopted by neighbours) for there is a word galla “wandering” or “to go home” in their language.

The Oromo never called themselves “Galla” and resist its use because the term is considered derogatory. They traditionally identified themselves by one of their clans (gosas) and now use the common umbrella term of Oromo which connotes “free born people”. The word Oromo is derived from Ilm Orma meaning “children of Orma”, or “sons of Men”, or “person, stranger”. The first known use of the word Oromo to refer to the ethnic group is traceable to 1893.

After Fra Mauro’s mention, there is a profusion of literature about the peoples of this region including the Oromo, particularly mentioning their wars and resistance to religious conversion, primarily by European explorers, Catholic Christians missionaries. The earliest primary account of Oromo ethnography is the 16th-century “History of Galla” by Christian monk Bahrey who comes from the Sidama country of Gammo, written in the Ge’ez language. According to an 1861 book by D’Abbadie. The Oromo are mentioned as the Galla in several Maps and Historical events. One mention of the Oromo before the (Oromo expansion), was when the Oromo led a campaign against the Sultanate of Ifat, the campaign being named Meeshii Dir Dhabe. The Oromo led an expedition against the Cisee Dir clan who inhabited the great city. The Cisse clan would be victorious, ending the campaign. The Cisee would rule the city for the next 2 centuries till the expansion/Migration of the Oromo. One inscription of the Oromo from the 14th century notes that the Oromo were inhabiting Ethiopia much before the Oromo migration and founded several Civilisations many of which were Wej, Bale, Arsi, Dawaro, as well as others. Sihabudin also mentioned that the Werra Qallo who now inhabit Hararghe, were living in Dawaro much before the Oromo migration. Historical evidence suggests that the Oromo people were already established in the southern highlands in or before the 15th century and that at least some Oromo people were interacting with other Ethiopian ethnic groups. According to Alessandro Triulzi The Oromo would get in contact and interact with the Nilo Saharan Groups.

Historical linguistics and comparative ethnology studies suggest that the Oromo people probably originated around the lakes Lake Chew Bahir and Lake Chamo. They are a Cushitic people who have inhabited East and Northeast Africa since at least the early 1st millennium. The aftermath of the sixteenth century Ethiopian–Adal war led to Oromos to move to the north. The Harla were assimilated by the Oromo in Ethiopia. While Oromo people have lived in the region for a long time, the ethnic mixture of peoples who have lived here is unclear. The Oromos increased their numbers through Oromization (Meedhicca, Mogasa and Gudifacha), assimilation, and forced assimilation of other ethnic groups, as well as the inclusion of mixed peoples (Gabbaro). The native ancient names of the territories were replaced by the name of the Oromo clans who conquered it while the people were made Gabbaros.

History

Pre-19th century

Historically, Afaan Oromo-speaking people used their own Gadaa system of governance. Oromos also had a number of independent kingdoms, which they shared with the Sidama people. Among these were the Gibe region kingdoms of Kaffa, Gera, Gomma, Garo, Gumma, Jimma, Leeqa-Nekemte and Limmu-Ennarea.

They would also establish dynasties such as the Yejju dynasty that would be de-facto rulers of Ethiopian empire from 1769-1855 this period was known as zemene mesafint, they would particularly have control over the provinces of Begemder and Gojjam. Notable rulers such as Gugsa of Yejju founded cities like Debre Tabor and for a period even changed the official language of the empire from Amharic to Oromiffa during the rule of the half-Oromo emperor Iyoas.

Oromos would also establish several Muslim states and dynasties in what was Wollo Province six to be exact, this included Qallu, House of the Borana and Gattiroch, The Arreloch, and the two longest and the most important ones: Yejju dynasty and the Warra Himano also called the Mahammadoch dynasty

The Warra Himano (1700-1916) would use Islam as a resistance ideology with vigor, creative ways to resist the Christian Abyssinian territorial expansion and cultural encroachment, this was the second Muslim Oromo state to be established in Wollo, the first to declare Jihad in the name and interest of Islam, the first to adopt the title of “imam” for its rulers and the longest lasting one. It reached its zenith of power under Imam Muhammad Ali (1771-1785) a far sighted leader, a resourceful politician and a fervent Muslim who made Sharia the basis of the law in the state.

Another ruler, Amade II (1815-1838) Wollo would become the most active centre of Islam teachings in the Horn of Africa, Amade is even reported to have asked Muhammad Ali of Egypt to help him conquer and convert northern Ethiopia and its peoples, Amade was considered by many one of the most important if not the most important Muslim ruler of Ethiopia by his time Wollo had become a veritable Islamic state in the heartland of Christian Ethiopia, the rise of Muslim Oromo power in Wollo was instrumental in the revival of Christian nationalism in Abyssinia.

The Warra Himano dynasty would convert many Amhara christians to Islam during its rule, and at the zenith of its power Mammadoch dynasty had their hegemony accepted in the various parts of Wollo: Ambasel, Qallu, Borena, Wore-Illu and Amhara Sayint. The territory extended from Abbay river in the west to Qallu and Garfa area in the east and Wänchit and Jama rivers in the south. Moreover, under the leadership of Kollasse Amade, the Mammedoch had even started to take part in the power struggle among the lords of northern Ethiopia at Gonder.

Notable rulers such as Ras Mikael King of Wollo and the uncrowned emperor of Ethiopia, Lij Iyasu (1913-1916) descend from this ruling family.

The earliest known documented and detailed history of the Oromo people was by the Ethiopian monk Abba Bahrey who wrote Zenahu lä Galla in 1593, though the synonymous term Gallas was mentioned in maps or elsewhere much earlier. After the 16th century, they are mentioned more often, such as in the records left by Abba Pawlos, Joao Bermudes, Jerorimo Lobo, Galawdewos, Sarsa Dengel and others. These records suggest that the Oromo were pastoral people in their history, who stayed together. Their animal herds began to expand rapidly and they needed more grazing lands. They began migrating, not together, but after separating. They lacked kings, and had elected leaders called luba based on a gada system of government instead. By the late 16th century, two major Oromo confederations emerged: Afre and Sadaqa, which respectively refer to four and three in their language, with Afre emerging from four older clans, and Sadaqa out of three. These Oromo confederations were originally located in south-central Ethiopia, specifically the northwest of the Borena Zone near Lake Abaya, but started moving north in the 16th century in what is termed as the “Great Oromo Migration”.

According to Richard Pankhurst, a British-born Ethiopian historian, this migration is linked to the first incursions into the inland Horn of Africa by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim. According to historian Marianne Bechhaus-Gerst, the migration was one of the consequences of the fierce Ethiopian–Adal war which killed a lot of people and depopulated the regions near the Galla lands, but also probably a result of droughts in their traditional homelands. Further, they acquired horses and their gada system helped coordinate well equipped Oromo warriors who enabled fellow Oromos to advance and settle into newer regions starting in the 1520s. This expansion continued through the 17th century.

Both peaceful integration and violent competition between Oromos and other neighboring ethnicities such as the Amhara, Sidama, Afar and the Somali affected politics of the Oromo community. Between 1500 and 1800, there were waves of wars and struggle between highland Christians, coastal Muslim and polytheist population in the Horn of Africa. This caused a major redistribution of populations. The northern, eastern and western movement of the Oromos from the south around 1535 mirrored the large-scale expansion by Somalis inland. The 1500–1800 period also saw relocation of the Amhara people, and helped influence contemporary ethnic politics in Ethiopia.

According to oral and literary evidence, Borana Oromo clan and Garre Somali clan mutually victimized each other in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, particularly near their eastern borders. There were also periods of relative peace. According to Günther Schlee, the Garre Somali clan replaced the Borana Oromo clan as the dominant ethnic group in this region. The Borana violence against their neighbors, states Schlee, was unusual and unlike their behavior inside their community where violence was considered deviant.^[

Demographics

The Oromos are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia (34.9% of the population), numbering about 37 million. They are predominantly concentrated in the Oromia Region in central Ethiopia, the largest region in the country by both population and area. They speak Afaan Oromoo, the official language of Oromia. Oromos constitute the third most populous ethnic group among Africans as a whole and the most populous among Horner’s specifically.

Oromo also have a notable presence in northern Kenya in the Marsabit County, Isiolo County and Tana River County Totaling to about 656,636: 276,236 Borana 141,200 Gabra 158,000 Orma 45,200 Sakuye 20,000 Waata 16,000 Munyo Yaya. There are also Oromo in the former Wollo and Tigray provinces of Ethiopia.

Subgroups

The Oromo are consists of two major branches that break down into an assortment of clan families. From west to east. The Borana Oromo, also called the Booranaa, are a semi-pastoralist group living in southern Oromia and northern Kenya. The Borana inhabit the Borena Zone of the Oromia Region of Ethiopia and the former Northern Frontier District (now northern Kenya) of Northern Kenya. They speak a dialect of Afaan Oromo. The Oromo language. Barentu/Barentoo or (older) Baraytuma is the other moiety of the Oromo people. The Barentu Oromo inhabit the eastern parts of the Oromia Region in the Zones of West Hararghe, Arsi Zone, Bale Zone, Dire Dawa city, the Jijiga Zone of the Somali Region, Administrative Zone 3 of the Afar Region, Oromia Zone of the Amhara Region, and are also found in the Raya Azebo Aanaas in the Tigray Region.

Language

Oromo, is written with Latin characters known as Qubee.The Sapalo script was invented by the Oromo scholar Sheikh Bakri Sapalo (also known by his birth name, Abubaker Usman Odaa) during the 1950s. Oromo serves as one of the official languages of Ethiopia and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia, Harari and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is a language of primary education in Oromia, Harari, Dire Dawa, Benishangul-Gumuz and Addis Ababa and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is used as an internet language for federal websites along with Tigrinya.

More than 33.8% of Ethiopia’s population are Oromo mother-tongue speakers, which makes it the most widely spoken primary language in Ethiopia. It is also the most widely spoken Cushitic language and the fourth-most widely spoken language of Africa, after Arabic, Hausa and Swahili. Oromo is spoken as a first language by more than 37 million Oromo people in Ethiopia and by an additional half-million in parts of northern and eastern Kenya. It is also spoken by smaller numbers of emigrants in other African countries, such as South Africa, Libya, Egypt and Sudan. Besides first language speakers, a number of members of other ethnicities who are in contact with the Oromo speak it as a second language, such as the Omotic-speaking Bambassi and the Nilo-Saharan-speaking Kwama in western Ethiopia.

Religion

The Oromo followed their traditional religion Waaqeffanna and were resistant to religious conversion before assimilation in sultanates and Christian kingdoms. The influential 30-year war from 1529 to 1559 between the three parties – the Oromo, the Christians and the Muslims – dissipated the political strengths of all three. The religious beliefs of the Oromo people evolved in this socio-political environment. In the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, Protestant or Catholic missionaries efforts were able to create Oromo Protestant or Catholic followers.

In the mid and late 19th century, the Ethiopian emperors were faced with widespread rifts and disputes in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and crippling ethnic and religious divisions that plagued the empire and exposed it to the intervention and meddling of neighboring Muslims (especially Egypt and the Ottoman Empire) and European powers. The emperors that ruled in that period, Tewodros II, Yohannes IV, and Menelik II, thus strove to suppress disunion and schism both within and without the Ethiopian Church and were often intolerant towards other religions. The Wollo Oromo, the Arsi Oromo, and the Tulama Oromo were among those who violently clashed with the Ethiopian expansion in the region in the 19th century and the empire’s attempts at enforcing unity through the propagation of Orthodox Christianity, as the majority of these groups were not Christian at the time.

In the 2007 Ethiopian census for Oromia region, which included both Oromo and non-Oromo residents, there was a total of 13,107,963 followers of Christianity (8,204,908 Orthodox, 4,780,917 Protestant, 122,138 Catholic), 12,835,410 followers of Islam, 887,773 followers of traditional religions, and 162,787 followers of other religions. Accordingly, the Oromia region is 48.1% Christian (8,204,908 or 30.4% Orthodox, 4,780,917 or 17.7% Protestant, 122,138 Catholic), 47.6% Muslim and 3.3% followers of traditional religions

According to a 2009 publication of Association of Muslim Social Scientists and International Institute of Islamic Thought, “probably just over 60% of the Oromos follow Islam, over 30% follow Christianity and less than 3% follow traditional religion”.

According to a 2016 estimate by James Minahan, about half of the Oromo people are Sunni Muslim, a third are Ethiopian Orthodox, and the rest are mostly Protestants or follow their traditional religious beliefs. The traditional religion is more common in southern Oromo populations and Christianity more common in and near the urban centers, while Muslims are more common near the Somalian border and in the north.