INTRODUCTION

Cattle commands a prominent position in our meat supply and livestock industry. Beef is estimated to supply about 45 per cent of total meat consumed in Nigeria, while the next in rank is sheep and goat meat with 35 per cent. Our National herd contains an estimated 9.2 million herds of cattle in 1981. Over 90 per cent of these are in the hands of traditional producers and the Northern parts of the country (Ken, 1982). The growth rate in the national herd is estimated at 1.5 per cent annually. It is interesting to note that, although developing countries contain about two-thirds of the World Cattle Population, about two-thirds of total beef production is accounted for by developed countries (Rimi, 1982). Whatever their level of production, livestock in developing countries provide millions of families with better nutrition, family income and employment opportunities, draft power and more balanced agriculture. The objective of the study is to have a critical review on how indigenous breeds of cattle, their productivity, economic and cultural values affect Nigerians.

CATTLE POPULATION, BREED AND DISTRIBUTION IN NIGERIA

Presently, the cattle population in Nigeria has been estimated as 15.3 million (Umar, 2007; Umar et al., 2008; Tibi & Aphunu, 2010). There are many breeds of cattle indigenous to Nigeria. According to Pagot (1992); Babayemi, Abu, and Opakunbi (2014), the popular breeds of cattle in Nigeria include White Fulani, Red Bororo, Sokoto Gudali, Adamawa Gudali, Wadara, Azawak, Muturu, Keteku, Ndama and Kuri.

(i) White Fulani (Bunaji):

White Fulani is the most numerous and widespread of all Nigerian cattle breeds (Blench, 1993; Meghen, MacHugh, Sauveroche, Kana, & Bradley, 1999). The Nigerian National Livestock Research Survey (NNLRS) 1999; Alphonsus, Akpa, Barje, Finangwai and Adamu (2012) estimated that the white Fulani represents 37% of the national herd. They are found from Lagos to Sokoto, Katsina and Kano States and spread across the Nigerian Middle Belt. The only areas from which they are significantly absent are Borno, where Rahaji and Wadara predominate, and in the south-east, where there are no resident Zebu. The movement of cattle into the derived savannah and to the edge of the humid zone has largely been of Bunaji and pastoralists generally agree that they are superior to all other breeds of Zebu in resisting diseases with the ability to thrive under a variety of conditions (Blench, 1993; Meghen et al., 1999). The main limiting factors of this tropical breed of cattle include late sexual maturity, the long interval between calving and short lactation length. The White Fulani cattle are, however, important for their genetic predisposition of hardiness, heat tolerance and adaptation to local conditions (Alphonsus et al., 2012). It has a white coat colour and it is fairly large, height of about 130 cm, bull weighs about 500 kg and cows 325 kg. The hump is large and well developed, navel flab is small, horns are of medium length, up curving, and lyre-shaped. The White Fulani is a triple-purpose animal, with milk production of 2,300 kg per lactation. It may be fattened for beef, kept for milk production, or used as a draught animal, especially the bull. Crosses of White Fulani and Holstein recorded increased milk production at NAPRI-Shika, Zaria (Alphonsus et al., 2012). Age at first calving was 42 – 45 months but in Fulani herds, it can be as high as 5 years. They provide much of the beef consumed throughout Nigeria (Payne & Wilson, 1999; Alphonsus et al., 2012).

(ii) Red Bororo (Rahaji):

The Red Bororo is the third most numerous breed of cattle in Nigeria, representing 22% of the national herd. The Rajaji is adapted to arid and semi-arid regions and is rarely found further south than Kaduna in the wet season, except for the isolated population on the Mambila Plateau in the North-East (Blench, 1993; Meghen et al., 1999). The Rahaji is one of the largest Zebu breeds and is distinguished by its deep burgundy-coloured coat, pendulous ears and long, thick horns (Katie & Alistair, 1986; Williamson & Payne, 1990). Fulani pastoralists consider the Rahaji an extremely prestigious breed and many herds of ‘white’ cattle include a few Rahaji for crossbreeding. Nonetheless, it tolerates neither humidity-related diseases nor poor nutrition (Blench, 1993). Strikingly, a Fulani clan, the Rahaji, named for the breed they traditionally herded, has been obliged to exchange their stock for Bunaji as they have moved south into the Middle Belt because of high mortality among the ‘red’ animals (Meghen et al., 1999).

(iii) Sokoto Gudali:

The Nigerian National Livestock Research Survey (NNLRS) estimated that Gudali represents 32% of the national herd. There are two quite distinct types of Gudali in Nigeria: the Sokoto Gudali (Bokolooji) and the Adamawa Gudali. The Sokoto Gudali stereotypically occurs mainly in the North-West of Nigeria, but in reality, it is now distributed widely throughout the country (Katie & Alistair, 1986; Williamson & Payne, 1990; Payne & Wilson, 1999). The Sokoto Gudali is a uniform cream, light grey or dun, the dewlap and skin folds are highly developed and the horns almost absent. The hair is short and the skin is thick and pigmented. The ears are pendulous and are useful milkers. Their milk yield at the National Animal Production Research Institute (NAPRI), Shika was higher than that of White Fulani (Payne & Wilson, 1999; Alphonsus et al., 2012). It has a calving interval of 360 – 450 days. The udders in the female are well developed with good teats, hence they are regarded as an indigenous dairy breed. At maturity, the female weighs an average of about 330 kg, while the male weighs about 450 kg. The female produces an average of 1,500 kg of milk per lactation (Payne & Wilson, 1999).

(iv) Adamawa Gudali:

The Adamawa Gudali, as its name implies, is restricted to Adamawa (Blench, 1993; Meghen et al., 1999). The NNLRS (1990) estimated that Adamawa Gudali represents 2% of the national herd. At least two local types were originally recognized in Nigeria: the Banyo, with Rahaji blood and rather large horns, often with a white face and red-eye patches, and the Yola, which has an admixture of Muturu (Gates, 1952). The Muturu element has been progressively diluted since the 1950s and the Yola breed is no longer recognized as a distinct variety by local herders. The Adamawa Gudali resembles the Bunaji in conformation. It is medium to large-sized, with medium length horns and usually pied, or with a white, black, red or brown coat. It has thick, crescent-shaped horns, a pendulous hump, and a short head and muzzle (Katie & Alistair, 1986; Williamson & Payne, 1990), however, the pendulous hump is the feature that most reliably distinguishes it from the Bunaji. Both Kanuri and Fulani pastoralists own Adamawa Gudali cattle. It is rare for them to have complete herds of Adamawa Gudali, and often they are mixed with Wadara, Bunaji or Rahaji. Many farmers regard Adamawa Gudali as the indigenous race of the region and they are common in villages, where they are favoured for ploughing, but when they become too large to pull a plough effectively, they are further fattened in the compound and sent to market (Payne & Wilson, 1999; Babayemi et al., 2014).

(v) Wadara:

Wadara cattle, another Nigerian breed, are medium-sized, lightly built cattle, and are usually dark-red, black, pied or brown. They are short-horned and have a small erect hump, representing some 6.6% of the national herd. Wadara cattle are the ‘indigenous’ cattle of Borno and are referred to by the Koyam and related pastoralists as ‘our’ cattle. They are frequently called ‘Shuwa’ in the literature, after the Shuwa Arabs who, also, herd them. A related breed with a white coat, the Ambala, is often traded into Nigeria from Chad (Blench, 1993; Meghen et al., 1999).

(vi) Azawak:

The Azawak is another breed found in Nigeria and is said to be native to the Azawak valley North-East of Nigeria and is distributed along its North-Western border. It is lightly built with medium-length horns. Although Azawak in the Niger Republic is commonly described as red, the Azawak that enter Nigeria is usually a light fawn colour, though they can also be white, brown, pied and black. The NNLRS (1990) estimated that they represent just 0.7% of the national herd. A small population of Azawak cattle exists in Nigeria throughout the year, but the majority is seasonally transhumant. Azawak is generally only found on the border North and West of Sokoto but there are, also, some in the North-West of Borgu and dotted along the frontier from Sokoto to Katsina (Blench, 1993; Meghen et al., 1999).

(vii) Muturu:

The West African dwarf short-horn or Muturu is small-bodied, and blocky in conformation with short, fine-boned limbs. It has a compact body, no hump, a straight back, and a broadhead. The face is slightly dished, and the horns are very short. In South-Central Nigeria, the Muturu is generally black, or black and white. The Muturu on the Jos Plateau itself is usually black and white but are distinctly larger than the low-land animals. There are more variations in the Northern populations; where brown, red or tawny animals are recorded. Within Nigeria, Muturu cattle have a very disjointed distribution, suggesting, a gradual retreat of a once more widespread population (Payne & Wilson, 1999; Blench, De Jode, Gherzi, & Di Domenico, 1998). Blench et al. (1998) have reviewed the history, distribution, management and productivity of the Muturu. Inadequate maps of their distribution have seriously marred numerical estimates of the numbers of Muturu. Muturu is widely dispersed and often stall-fed, and so are less visible than Zebu. As a result, published population figures are little more than informed guesses. Moreover, since Northern Muturu are barely known and their trypano-tolerance is unmeasured, they have usually been excluded from estimates of ‘trypano-tolerant’ cattle. ILCA’s (1979) estimate of 120,000 Muturu should be contrasted with that of Ngere (1983), who gave a figure of 60,000 or 0.7% of the national herd. Akinwumi and Ikpi (1985), surveying five states in the south, reported 85,000. The NNLRS (1990), the first survey to consider all the population islands, gave an estimate of some 115,000 for 1990 (RIM, 1992). There are isolated populations of Muturu along with the Republic of Cameroon frontier up as far as SouthEastern Borno, adjoining the Michika-Mubi area of Adamawa. Small clusters exist in the Atlantika mountains, South-East of Yola and near Cham, east of Bauchi. Muturu is still relatively common in South-East of the Jos Plateau in the dry savannah (Blench, 1993; Meghen et al., 1999). There is another nucleus of Muturu north of Tegina in the North-West, with diverse coat-colours suggesting a link with the North-Eastern populations. Muturu were probably once kept throughout the whole of Southern Nigeria and their disappearance from many areas is relatively recent. West of the River Niger, Muturu were once widespread but are now uncommon. Both Keteku and Zebu have replaced them, our communities have ceased keeping them. At present, the major concentrations of Muturu are in the South-East, in the Cross River area and among the Tiv people in and around Makurdi. Muturu is kept throughout the Igbo areas but in very low densities (Blench, 1993; Meghen et al., 1999).

(viii) Keteku:

The distribution and productivity of Keteku cattle have been studied in more detail by Blench et al. (1998). The definition of Keteku has become more problematic in recent years with an increasing proportion of Zebu blood in ‘Keteku’ herds. As Fulani pastoral herds push even further south and increasingly inhabit regions previously restricted to trypano-tolerant stock, more Zebu stock is bought in for village herds. For example, the ‘Biu’, a Zebu x Savannah Muturu cross found near Biu in southern Borno and described in the literature (Gates, 1952), has effectively become submerged in the local Zebu gene pool. Thus, the application of the name Keteku to an individual animal may reflect as much the owner’s cultural background as its actual genetic composition. The population size given by ILCA (1979) was 180,000 Keteku in Nigeria. Keteku is significantly less common than previously thought and their distribution quite different. It is unlikely that there are as many as 100,000 of all types.The Borgu Keteku, also, known as Kataku, Ketari, Borgu, Borgawa and Kaiama, is a trypano-tolerant, stabilized Muturu x Zebu cross (Gates, 1952). It combines Muturu and Bunaji features with white, grey and black types predominating, and more occasionally red and brown. The horns are long compared with the Muturu, but the hump smaller, and the legs shorter than the Bunaji. In Nigeria, Keteku herds are restricted to a narrow band along the Benin Republic border in the region usually known as ‘Borgu’. Further east, Keteku is occasionally kept adjacent to villages in Northern Yoruba land. West African dwarf shorthorn was once common through this region and the Keteku fills the same niche (Blench, 1993; Meghen et al., 1999). Farmers who value their combination of size and trypano-tolerance, sometimes buy Keteku as investment stock in the Ondo area. Keteku were formerly distributed from breeding farms as part of livestock extension programmes and the Government Livestock Centre in Ado-Ekiti keeps a stock of Keteku (Blench, 1993; Meghen et al., 1999). In contrast to other West African countries, there has been very little ‘new’ crossing of Zebu and Muturu in Southern Nigeria. In some ways, it is surprising that the cross-breeding of Zebu and Muturu did not take place all along the line where the two types came into contact. Further East, among the Igbo, farmers tend to assume that, the two breeds are incompatible; and that, attempts at cross-breeding would conflict with religious strictures. The continuing genetic separation on the Jos Plateau probably reflects ethnic competition between the livestock farmers than animal production considerations (Blench, 1993; Meghen et al., 1999).

(ix) N’dama:

N’dama cattle are native to Senegambia and adjacent parts in the West of West Africa (Starkey, 1984; Blench et al., 1998; Babayemi et al., 2014). They were first brought into Nigeria from Guinea in 1939 on an experimental basis because they were trypano-tolerant and yet were larger than Muturu (Starkey, 1984; Blench et al., 1998). The N’dama has a medium-sized compact body with lyre-shaped black-tipped horns and no hump. There is a small dewlap in the male, but a fairly large head. Although those imported into Nigeria are generally light brown, there are black and pied animals in Guinea. N’dama cattle have been sold to farmers and pastoralists to improve the resistance of local herds to trypanosomiasis. In most cases, herders cross them with Zebu and there are now few pure N’dama outside institutions, although some were recorded in Northern Yoruba land (Blench, 1993; Meghen et al., 1999).

(x) Kuri:

The Kuri is a large-bodied humpless long-horn, whose exact historical origin is unknown (Blench, 1993; Meghen et al., 1999; Babayemi et al., 2014). The Kuri has distinctive, inflated, spongy horns unknown in any other breed and with a mean height of 1.5 m, and weight up to 550 kg. It is one of the largest breeds of African cattle. Kuri is noted for their extremely variable colours and their ability to thrive in semi-aquatic conditions. The nucleus of the Kuri cattle population is within the region of the former Lake Chad, and along its eastern shores. In Nigeria, Kuri is found not only on the Lake but on its shores and along the Yobe valley, as far west as Gashagar. There is, also, a restricted export of the Kuri as traction animals to the region North-East of Kano. The breeds along the Komadugu Yobe are crossed with the Zebu and are generally referred to as Jetkoram in the literature (Blench, 1993; Meghen et al., 1999).

CATTLE HERD SIZE AND PRODUCTIVITY IN NIGERIA

(a) Herd size:

Optimum herd size for an area and a population can only be estimated after many variables have been considered (Akpa, Alphonsus, & Abdulkareem, 2012). A theoretical concept of optimum herd size takes account of the prevailing environmental conditions, biological capacity (performance) of the species, herd management practice, and resource use and distribution (Iro, 2009). For the pastoral Fulani of Northern Nigeria, none of these factors is static; therefore, optimum herd size is dynamic, varying by a wide margin, depending on the circumstance of the individual pastoralist. Cunnings (1966), earlier found 100 – 150 as optimum Fulani cattle herd size, while Iro (1994) reported Fulani cattle herd size to be 80 – 100. In a related study, Adisa and Badmos (2009) reported an average cattle herd size of 41, while the majority of herdsmen (46.4%) herded 41 – 60 cattle. A recent survey of pastoralist households by Akpa et al. (2012) in Zaria and environs revealed that the pastoralist herd size ranged from 16 to 69 cattle per herd. Also, Okoli, Enyinnia, Elijah, Omede, and Unamba-Opara (2012) reported that majority of Fulani pastoralist (63.60%) maintained herd size of 41 to 70 heads in the humid rain forest of Imo State, Nigeria. Nigeria with a population of over 170 million people requires several heads of cattle to satisfy its demand for cattle and cattle products. With more than 80% of the cattle population in the hands of traditional pastoralists, the supply cannot match the demand. To bridge the gap, cattle importation is practised. The imported figures, as at January 1996, were 5,142 heads per annum. The pastoralist’s operational sizes were examined in a study conducted by Usman and Nasiru (2005) to determine the composition of the herds in terms of steers, lactating cows, non-lactating cows and the calves. The pastoralists were grouped into three categories, namely small scale pastoralists (SSP), medium scale pastoralists (MSP) and large scale pastoralists (LSP). According to the study, the average herd size of the small scale pastoralists (SSP) was about 17 cattle, while that of MSP and LSP were 32 and 73 cattle, respectively. Also, the composition of their herd indicated that LSP had more lactating and non-lactating cows as well as calves than the other groups of pastoralists, while the MSP excelled in the average number of steer in the herd (Mbap, 1996). An examination of stock composition in Zaria showed a gender imbalance, with a preponderance of the female stock than the males. On average, the female species constituted 60 to 75% in each herd. The advantages of keeping more females in the herd are obvious. A simulation of herd dynamics proved that, the rate of growth of the herd peaks when female calves dominate the kraal (Iro, 2009). The young animals contributed about 50% of the herd size, with more females (35%) than males (15%). The proportion of breeding cows in the herd was 49.1%, while the proportion of the breeding bulls was 6%. The profitability of any cattle enterprise is highly determined by the number of breeding cows and young females in the herd (Whitley, 2008). This explains why the large proportion of the Fulani herd is composed of breeding cows and young females. The males which were reasonably much in number at a younger age but became fewer as they reached breeding age suggested that, bulls in the herd were sold out when they reached breeding age as a source of income to the family and only a few were retained in the herd as breeding bulls. It is usually not economical to keep many bulls in the herd since one mature bull can service at least 20 cows in natural mating (Neumann, 1990). From these results, the number of cows and young animals in the herd were almost equal (0.98). The proportion of breeding bulls to young animals was small (0.14), which also gave an approximately equal proportion of breeding bulls to cows (0.15). The ratio of young males to females was 0.42, indicating a higher number of young females than young males (Iro, 2009).

(b) Reproduction Performance:

Reproduction is the most important factor in determining profitability in a cow/calf enterprise. To maintain a calving interval of 365 days, a cow must re-breed in 80 to 85 days after calving. Poor reproductive performance is directly linked to the percentage of body fat in cows. Researchers have determined that a certain amount of body fat is required for the reproductive system to function since inadequate nutrition is most often the cause of poor reproductive performance. Developing a nutrition program is easier and more cost-effective when all cows on the farm can be managed similarly. This is especially true when all cows on a farm are managed in a single herd, which is often the case with small production units (Babayemi et al., 2014). Calving year-round will make it very difficult to maintain adequate body condition on all cows at critical times. Poor body condition is associated with reduced income per cow, increased post-partum interval, weak calves at birth, low quality and quantity of colostrum, reduced milk production, increased dystocia, and lower weaning weights. Increasing post-partum interval will result in a younger, smaller calf at weaning the next year and will result in lower incomes if sold at weaning. Weak calves at birth may not get adequate colostrum and are more susceptible to disease, reduced weaning weights, reduced feedlot performance and less desirable carcass traits. Research clearly shows that cows in moderate body condition will have a shorter interval from calving to first estrus than cows in thin condition (Babayemi et al., 2014). According to Okoli et al. (2012), 90.90% of pastoralists in the humid rain-forest of Nigeria allowed 6 – 10 calving per cow within its reproductive life, while a limited 9.10% may allow up to 11 – 15 calving per cow. This implies that most of the female animals culled for sale are very old animals, which is in agreement with the report of abattoir studies by Okoli, Ebere, Emenalom, Uchegbu, and Esonu (2001). Cattle production and breeding efficiency on grazing rangelands of Northern Nigeria are however low, especially during the dry season (Mapiye, Chimonyo, & Dzama, 2009). For example, age at first calving and calving interval for cows exceed two years (Nqeno, Chimonyo, Mapiye, & Marufu, 2009), steers reach slaughter weight between 24 and 30 months of age (du Plessis & Hoffman, 2004) and off-take rates vary between 2 and 10% per annum (Mapiye et al., 2009). According to Akpa et al. (2012), the average age at first calving of the breeding cows was 4.75 years. This agreed with data earlier obtained from Bunaji herds on the Jos Plateau (Synge, 1980), but higher than the 37-month reported in Government Farm at the National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom (Ologun, 1980). This variation is mainly attributed to low feed quantity and quality on communal grazing lands, particularly during the dry season (Angassa & Oba, 2007; Nqeno et al., 2009). Under such conditions, the provision of feed supplements could be recommended to improve cattle production. Before any nutritional improvements are recommended, it is, however, important to identify the types of nutrients limiting cattle production in a given zone (Ndlovu, Chimonyo, & Muchenje, 2009). Akpa et al. (2012), also, reported that bulls in the pastoral cattle herds usually reached a considerable average age of 4.05 years before breeding. This could be probably due to poor nutrition and other environmental stressors. Blezinger (2008), reported that nutrition and feed intake of young bulls affect the age at which they reach puberty. However, Neumann (1990), suggested that the bull calf of about 15 months of age should not be allowed to run with the cows, where controlled breeding is being practised. Standard technical coefficients have been used to compare between what is obtainable in the research institution like National Animal Production Research Institute, Zaria or National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom and that prevailing under the traditional system in Nigeria (Mbap, 1996). The information collected was on calving rate, calving cycle, age at first calving, length of lactation, productive life and milk to butter ratio. These were found to be 3 – 4 years, 13 months (Pregnancy 9 months with 3 months resting period), 38 months, 280 – 300 days, about 10 years of age (ie. 5 – 6 lactation plus 4 years before lactation) and lastly the milk to butter ratio of 1 litre to 100 gm. In comparison with the above, the calving cycle in Nigeria ranges from 29 to about 43 months. The age at first calving ranges between 30 to 42 months, while the productive life ranges between 9 and 14 years (Mbap, 1996).

(c) Productivity:

Protein, energy and minerals are the most critical nutrients affecting milk and beef production in the semi-arid areas (Devendra & Sevilla, 2002). Some reports have suggested that energy and minerals are not limiting nutrients to grazing cattle, but attributed losses in cattle productivity to deficiencies in protein (Tainton, 1999; Chimonyo, Kusina, Hamudikuwanda, & Nyoni, 2000). Poppi and McLennan (1995) and Devendra and Sevilla (2002), however, reported that during the early to mid-wet season, rangelands are not adequate sources of energy and minerals. This results in low cattle growth rates during this period and stands as a major constraint to increasing body weight gains (Shabi et al., 1998; DelCurto, Hess, Huston, & Olson, 2000) and consequently affecting beef production in the semi-arid areas. Generally, rangeland energy and mineral supplies in the late wet and dry seasons are arguably deemed to be sufficient to meet production requirements of cattle on the pastoral system in the semi-arid areas (Poppi & McLennan, 1995; Chimonyo et al., 2000). Thus, cattle production efficiency on communal rangelands in the semi-arid areas is often determined by nutrient availability, which in turn, is mainly influenced by temperature and seasonal distribution of rainfall (Angassa & Oba, 2007). The traditional cattle sector in Nigeria is generally characterized by low productivity occasioned by the seasonality of quantitative and qualitative feed shortage, which is perhaps the major constraint to improved production and productivity of smallholder enterprises (Olaloku & Debre, 1992; Barje, Adebayo, & Lamidi, 2011). However, by extensive spatial grazing, the pastoralists optimize spatial resource use, allow the soil to rejuvenate, and prevent permanent land damage. The impact of seasonal variation in feed resources on the condition and performance of cattle grazing the Guinea Savannah Zone of Nigeria has not been fully established. Such information is critical in developing appropriate feeding and disease prevention strategies. For example, the abrupt diet change that cattle experience from one season to another leaves them prone to digestive upset (Barje, Adebayo, & Lamidi, 2011). Although the switch from a forage diet to a finishing diet high in grain gives beef its desired marble characteristic, it also upsets the animals’ digestive system, which can adversely impact their growth. Similarly, marked seasonal quantity and quality of feed resources supplied affect their performance and carcass quality (Barje et al., 2011).

ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL IMPORTANCE OF CATTLE

Nigeria is one of the leading countries in cattle production in sub-Saharan Africa. For example, in 2008, Tibi and Aphunu (2010) reported that the country had over 14.73 million cattle consisting of 1.47 million milking cows and 13.26 million beef cattle. Less than 1% of this population is managed commercially, while about 99% is managed traditionally. Under the traditional system, there is the use of indigenous methods in all aspects of cattle production including health management (Mafimisebi et al., 2012). This tilt towards traditional management continues to have grave implications for commercialization of the production of cattle and cattle products and their prices in Nigeria (Abubakar & Garba, 2004). Cattle singly contribute about 12.7% of the agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Nigeria (CBN, 1999). The cattle industry provides a means of livelihood for a significant proportion of pastoral households and participants in the cattle value chain in the sub-humid and semi-arid ecological zones of Nigeria (Adegeye, 1995; Okunmadewa, 1999; FAO, 2006). Thus, thousands of Nigerians make a daily living from the sale, transport, processing and marketing of pastoral livestock products, including meat, milk, skins and draught power. Some research findings revealed that the Nigerian cattle industry generates USD 6.8 billion of a potential USD 20 billion annually (Bénard, Bonnet, & Guivert, 2010). The cattle industry, also, contributed 3.2 to 4% to the overall GDP of the country (FAO, 1999; CBN, 1999; Mbanasor, 2000; Ifeanyi, & Olayode, 2008). Although there are many sources of animal protein in Nigeria, several studies have shown that cattle and their products are the predominant and the most commonly consumed animal protein sources. Thus, cattle are a highly valued livestock in Nigeria and are kept for beef, hides and milk or for traction (Tukur, & Maigandi, 1999). Among pastoralist, however, cattle are kept as a status symbol and cultural medium, while in other cultures it, also, plays a major role in marriages, weddings, sacrifices, and funerals (Tibi, & Aphunu, 2010). From the foregoing, it is obvious why cattle production and marketing are notable employment and income-generating livelihood activities for many Nigerians. Furthermore, cattle are sources of raw materials such as bones, wool, fur, hides and skin, milk etc. for the production of clothing and leather products such as footwears like shoes, belts, bags, shawl and milk products such as yoghurt, butter and cheese. Oxen are, also, used as draught animals for transportation and land cultivation (Payne & Wilson, 1999; Kubkomawa, Helen, Timon, Kabir, & Neils, 2011). Cattle are a very important source of farm power in Nigeria and in different parts of the world since it is accessible to peasant farmers who cannot afford costly mechanized farm power (Jahake, 1992). Draught animal power is widely used for cultivation, transportation, water lifting and powering food processing equipment and has enhanced the volume of crop production in areas of use (Kubkomawa et al., 2011; Babayemi et al., 2014). For example, according to FAO (1996), where cattle are used to graze the vegetation under plantations of coconut, oil palm and rubber in Malaysia, it dramatically reduces the cost of weed control sometimes by as much as forty per cent. Again, according to FAO (1997), cow dung is highly valued for cooking and heating in many countries. For example, 25 kg of fresh cow dung could be used to produce one cubic meter of biogas, which can be used to provide energy for light, heat or motive power. Cattle, also, serve as means of foreign exchange earnings, for instance, beef, milk, hides, skin and other by-products are exported to earn foreign currency (Payne & Wilson, 1999). In Nigeria, cattle are kept at subsistence level by a farmer and usually serve as the first step out of poverty by rural dwellers. Thus, to the traditional arable farmer, cattle offers the security of continued food supply during periods of crop failure. Other cultural and economic contributions of cattle include the prestige inherent in their ownership and their place in custom, religion and festive occasions. Recently, cattle have been used as experimental animals such that much of what is known today about milk fat synthesis and the physiological mechanism that is involved, relate to the ruminant on account of its convenience in research. Cattle, also, assist in the economic utilization of non-marketable crop resources, adding to them. These animals are able to survive on fallow lands and others that are not good for arable crop farming, thereby maximizing the use of the available land resource. They are, also, used as gifts or for payment of bride price in traditional rites where they serve as family wealth (Payne & Wilson, 1999). Cattle, as well as other animals, provide organic manure which improves soil fertility. Farm manure which consists of animal fecal materials is used to fertilize farmlands. Manure itself is a valuable fertilizer containing 8 kg of nitrogen, 4 kg of phosphorus and 16 kg of potassium to the tone (FAO, 1999). Adding manure to the soil not only fertilizes it but, also, improves its structure and water retention capacity. Bulls can, also, be used as game animals and maybe a source of prestige to farmers kept at recreational parks for tourism activities. It represents the position of the owner and the family

CATTLE PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS

Cattle have been used as a major animal protein sources in many cultures with its by-products representing 66.0% of its live weights and 11.4% of the gross income (Liu, 2009). About 99% of global cattle are utilized for meat and other products such as hides and skins which are processed into the leather before being used (Liu, 2009; AFRIS, 2010). Animal hides have, also, been used for shelter, clothing and as containers since pre-historic times. Hides and skins are generally one of the most valuable by-products from animals. Animal fats are important by–products of the meat packaging industry. The major edible animal fats are lard and tallow. Animal fats are used together with molasses to improve palatability and energy value of feeds (AFRIS, 2010). They are, also, used to control dustiness in the feed. A lot of fat from cattle are used in cosmetics, especially in the manufacture of lipstick and eye make-up, soap, lubricants, hair sprays, conditioners, deodorants and creams (Gandhi, 2009). Tallow is, also, used in steel rolling industry to provide lubrication and also in some leather conditioners. The leather meals may also be hydrolyzed the same way as feathers (Gohl, 1981). Leather is composed primarily of collagen, a fibrous protein which has a poor amino acid profile. Leather scraps associated with the production of various leather products can be collected and hydrolyzed similarly as poultry feathers and used as supplemental protein for livestock (AFRIS, 2010). The hydrolyzed leather meal is an acceptable source of crude protein for ruminants at levels not exceeding 6% of the diet (Knowlton, Hoover, Sniffen, Thompson, & Belyea, 1976). Gohl (1981) reported that hydrolyzed leather meal can be included in broiler and pig diets at levels of up to 8 and 13% respectively, with no adverse effect. The digestibility of horns and hooves meal has, also, been shown to increase progressively with the fineness of the ground materials (Gohl, 1981). Horn and hoof meal contain crude protein (69.5 to 88.6%), ash (5.6 to 15.8%) and ether extract (4.7 to 14.7%). The protein is mainly keratin and other proteins. Horns and hoof meals have been used at low levels in poultry diets with variable results and it seems to be unpalatable to most classes of livestock (Gohl, 1981; Babayemi et al., 2014). High digestibility of about 80% for crude protein has been reported for horn and hoof meal prepared by steeping the hoofs and horn in 10% sodium carbonate for sixty hours at 20oC, after which the material is boiled in water for one hour and dried at a high temperature until it turned golden yellow (AFRIS, 2010). Gelatin is the product of connective tissues of a beef animal. Other products that contain gelatin might include gum, fruit snacks like gummy bears, and marshmallows and many medical products (Liu, 2009). In the past, many beef by-products were favourite foods in Asia, but health concerns have led to an increased focus on non–food uses such as pet foods and pharmaceuticals such as anti-rejection drugs used during organ transplant to help the body accept the new organ. Other medical uses such as insulin in diabetic patients and the sticky part of bandages are made from animal insulin and fatty acids, respectively (Liu, 2009). In developed countries, animal by-products from the slaughterhouse may include meat trimmings, inedible parts, organs, fetuses and certainly condemned carcasses but not including blood, hair, hooves, horns, manure and stomach content, and hide trimmings (Miles & Jacob, 2009). Some of these, however, form edible parts in many developing countries. Olomu (1995) reported that meat meal is, almost, similar to meat and bone meal except that, it guaranteed low phosphorus to show that little or no bone was added. Meat meals are widely used in feeds for poultry and pigs. They are usually too expensive to feed to ruminants, which in any case generally find meat products unpalatable. Because of the high price of meat meal, they are used to balance the amino acid composition of diets rather than a major source of protein (Gohl, 1981). Normally, less than 5% of meat meal is used in growing and finishing diet for pigs and less than 10% in the diet for piglets and poultry. The product is, also, a good source of lysine but it is somewhat deficient in methionine, cystine and tryptophan (Olomu, 1995). The protein quality is lower than a fish meal or soya bean meal for application in feeding swine or poultry when used to supplement crude protein in cereal-based diets (AFRIS, 2010).A blood meal is high in protein (about 80%) and energy and can form an excellent source of lysine if properly prepared. It is very rich in leucine but low in isoleucine (Olomu, 1995). A blood meal is hygroscopic and needs to be dried to less than 10 – 12% moisture and stored in a dry place. Combining blood meal with other supplemental protein sources was shown to improve performance in ducks (AFRIS, 2010). A blood meal is, also, used as fertilizer, but if over-applied, it can burn plants with excessive ammonia. Liu (2009) reported that blood could be used to produce edible products for human beings. For example, in Europe, animal blood has long been used to make blood sausages, blood pudding, biscuit and bread. Blood plasma has an excellent foaming capacity and can be used to replace egg white in the baking industries. Haem derived from animal blood is a valuable source of organic iron. Blood is, also, used in food as an emulsifier, stabilizer, a clarifier and colour additive. In the laboratory, many blood products such as plasma, albumen, globulin and fibrinogen are used as a nutrient for tissue culture media, as a necessary ingredient in blood agar and as peptone for microbial growth. Blood, also, has industrial uses, as an adhesive in the manufacture of paper, plywood, fibre, plastic and glue. Blood is used as sprays in insecticides and fungicides and as a stabilizer in cosmetics, and as a foaming agent in fire extinguishers. Similarly, USDA (1993) reported the uses of cattle blood in the manufacture of shoe polish and the sizing of leather as well as in the making of calico printers, in fixing certain pigment colours in cloth. A blood substitute, called Hemopure has been developed by Biopure Corporation (Boston, MP) from an extract of cow’s blood. When ruminant animals are slaughtered, the contents of their rumen can become a valuable feed resource, which can be dried immediately in the sun and used to replace bran in poultry feed and can constitute up to 10% of the total ration (Williamson & Payne, 1990). It can, also, be ensiled, but it needs to be mixed with a readily fermentable source of carbohydrates to be ensiled properly. It can, also, be mixed with blood for use in poultry feeding. Rumen content can serve as a good source of water-soluble vitamins, crude protein and dietary energy for herbivores (AFRIS, 2010). Only the content of the first three (3) stomachs are used for this purpose, while the content of the 4th stomach is a liquid and of low feeding value (Williamson & Payne, 1990; Mohammed, Igwebuike, & Kwari, 2005).

MARKETING OF CATTLE IN NIGERIA

Marketing encompasses all business activities associated with the transfer of a product from the producers to the consumers (Kohls & Uhls, 2002; Girei, Dire, & Bello, 2013). In the case of cattle, it is concerned with the movement of cattle from the pastoralists in the production locations in Northern Nigeria to the final consumers who are resident in Southern Nigeria (Omoruyi et al., 2000). The cattle marketing process makes possible the delivery of cattle to the buyers in the form, place and time needed (Girei et al., 2013). This process of bringing the cattle from where they are surplus (production/origin areas) to where there are shortages (consumption/sink markets), a process is known as arbitraging, needs to be fully understood to enhance the efficient working of cattle markets, which is vitally important in achieving sustainable and profitable agricultural commercialization in the livestock sub-sector in Nigeria (Mafimisebi, 2012). Marketing is an economic activity which stimulates further production and if efficiently done, both the producer and consumer get satisfied in the sense that the former gets a sufficiently remunerative price for the product to continue to produce, while the latter gets it at an affordable price that stimulates continued consumption (Umar, 2005). Cattle and beef trade provides the largest market in Nigeria, with millions of Nigerians making their livelihood from various beef-related enterprises (Umar et al., 2008). Consequently, the outcome of enhanced production and marketing of cattle and its products carry the potentials to better the income and nutritional status of households and positively impinge on their living standards. Efficient marketing plays an important role in the attempt to achieve wider accessibility and affordability of any product to consumers (Mafimisebi, 2011). This is obvious from the long-established truth that, production and marketing constitute a variety. Thus, lack of development in one will necessarily obstruct development in the other (Seperich, Woolverton, & Beirlein, 2002) Thus, the level of profit generated depends, to a greater extent, on how efficiently the market for a commodity works (Mafimisebi, 2012). The performance of a market is influenced by the structural characteristics of the market and the competitive behaviour of actors in the marketing chain. Understanding how these factors work independently and together can provide a basis for identifying opportunities to be exploited and constraints that need to be removed for the enhancement of commercialization. Gaining insights into how the cattle market works in Nigeria will, therefore, involve in-depth assessment of marketing efficiency in terms of the benefits derived by value chain participants and consumers (Babayemi et al., 2014). According to the National Livestock Project Division (NLPD, 1992), the supply of cattle and its products has witnessed a decline, while the demand has been increasing with the result being a shortfall in the supply. The high cost of marketing cattle is often the commonly cited culprit for this situation. Owing to the considerable spatial separation of the production area from the consumption area and other ancillary factors, there is a high handling cost, especially to cattle transportation (Filani, 2006). Transportation of cattle from the North to the South in Nigeria presents a daunting challenge because it is both a costly and risky business. Cattle are kept standing and in some cases, lying on top of each other in the vehicles throughout the long journey of 2 – 3 days. Most rural roads are seasonal and un-operational during the rainy season, while some inter-state roads are, also, in bad shape. Therefore, trucks and vehicles are prone to accidents, while cattle and freight insurance is still unpopular among the generally semi-literate cattle rearers, middlemen and transporters. The possibility, also, exists of transporters and traders being robbed in transit (Filani, 2006). Production without access to the market has also been identified as a problem for many livestock producers in Nigeria (Mubi et al., 2012). Delgado et al. (1999), however, stated that livestock revolution can be expected to allow the rural poor in developing countries to contribute to the growing market, but pastoral populations in Northern Nigeria lack reliable marketing outlets that could provide the full benefits of indigenous cattle resources to be captured by both pastoralists and pastoral production systems (Filani, 2006). Marketing of cattle in Nigeria is an economic activity common to all the Northern pastoral regions and there are days designated for cattle marketing (Mubi et al., 2012). Many people who participate in the marketing activities depend on it as their source of income, and to satisfy the economic needs and wants of the practitioners (Agboola, 1979). From this point of view, cattle marketing can be said to be the performance of all business activities which directs the smooth flow of cattle to consumers from sellers to accomplish the producer’s objective (Mubi et al., 2012; Girei et al., 2013). This has played a vital role in Nigeria in terms of economic, social and cultural contributions to the people involved in rearing and marketing of cattle as well as all tiers of Government (Mafimisebi, Bobola, & Mafimisebi, 2013). Marketing of cattle in Northern Nigeria is a function of so many factors among which are, transportation, pricing and financing, risk-bearing and keeping of cattle for future marketing. Sixty per cent of the marketable cattle crossing national borders are destined to Nigeria (Von Kaufmann, 1986; Girei et al., 2013). More than half of the cattle traded are from neighbouring Chad, Central Africa, Niger and Cameroon (Mubi et al., 2012). Large numbers of cattle, sheep and goats are imported as well as various milk products to a value of about two hundred and fifty million dollars in 2003 (FAO, 2006). As a result of this, there is need to tackle the problem of increase in demand for cattle products which will lead to increase in productivity and subsequently efficiency in the marketing of cattle in Nigeria, just like other parts of the world (Mafimisebi et al., 2013). The traders involved in selling and shipment of cattle are mostly men of varying ages. Mubi et al. (2012) reported that 100% of cattle marketers in Adamawa were men because of the marketing tasks involved coupled with the fact that, the Northern Muslims that form the largest population of the marketers do not allow their wives to go out for such business, as also reported by Auwal (2005). Mafimisebi et al. (2013) reported similarly that, 87% of cattle marketers were men in South-Western Nigeria. Mubi et al. (2012) observed that the marketers were in different age groups such as 30, 31 – 40 and 41 years and above as reported by Mafimisebi et al. (2013) in South-Western Nigeria. This implies that both the young and the aged can successfully make marketing a business to live on, but the younger ones are more active than the aged and invariably more into the business (FAO, 1990). Mubi et al. (2012) reported that 66% of cattle marketers were married which supports a similar result obtained by Kohls and Uhls (1985). This implies that the marketing of cattle is a profitable venture that sustains individuals and families. They, also, reported that minority of the marketers can read and write indicating that, they have attended secondary, tertiary or Qur’anic and primary education which was in contrast with Wakili (1996), who recorded the least number of respondents with Quranic education and more attendance of post-primary. Their analysis indicates that most of the marketers lack formal education which resulted in lack of proper keeping of records and poor communication during marketing, among others. This could affect efficient marketing activities since Schultz (1995), reported that education enhances a person’s ability to deal with economic disequilibria. Mubi et al. (2012) reported that the majority of the cattle marketers have cattle marketing experience ranging from 1 – 40 years experience. The retailer agents form 43%, while the commission agents and wholesalers form 21 and 36%, respectively. Ajiya (1998) revealed that insufficient capital by other commissioned agents is as a result of not being in the business for a long time, therefore, they are not well established. Mubi et al. (2012), reported factors considered in attracting higher prices to include size and conformation of the animal, sex, colour and health of the animal. The sources of capital to start the business of cattle marketing is another important issue to be considered. This is because the source and capital base of the business determine the state of the business. Mubi et al. (2012) reported that 40% of the marketers obtained their capital from relatives and friends, 28% from banks, 27% from fellow traders, while 5% of the capital came from other sources.

COST AND RETURNS IN CATTLE MARKETING

There is no fixed cost and returns an item because traders did not own either a warehouse or a truck. Most of their expenses are restricted to the operational costs of maintaining the animals in terms of supplementary feedings before final conveyance to the distant markets as well as taxes/levies paid in transit and thus, the only gross margin could be calculated. According to Adegeye and Dittoh (1985), gross margin is a good measure of profitability. The budgeting model is based on the average values reported by all the marketers in each category. Research has shown that all the various categories of marketers can cover their total variable cost of marketing and earn a reasonable level of returns. The variable costs included labour, feeding, water, transportation, veterinary services, association fees, taxes and loading and unloading charges. The average cost price per head of cattle is N 69,000, N 78,600 and N 82,300 for cattle dealers, retailers and brokers, respectively, while the average selling price per head of cattle is N80,640, N 83,817 and N 84,800, respectively. This gave a gross margin of N 6,548, N 4,655 and N2,342.5 per head of cattle for a dealer, retailer and broker, respectively (Mafimisebi et al., 2013).

PROFITABILITY AND EFFICIENCY RATIOS OF CATTLE MARKETING

According to Mafimisebi et al. (2013), a profitability ratio of 0.09, 0.07 and 0.03 was reported for dealers, retailers and brokers, respectively. This shows that the cattle marketing business is profitable to the different category of marketers in Nigerian markets. Another interesting observation was that profitability was highest among the cattle dealers closely followed by the retailers while the brokers had the lowest profitability ratio. This might not be unconnected with the distance covered in transportation by the cattle marketers as transportation was the major value-adding activity in cattle marketing. Thus, findings from their study seem to suggest that, the greater the distance covered to source cattle by an intermediary, the higher the profitability ratio. An enterprise is regarded as operationally efficient or inefficient as the efficiency ratios are greater than one or less than one, respectively. In this case, efficiency ratios of 1.09, 1.07 and 1.03 were indicated for dealers, retailers and brokers, respectively. This shows that the marketing enterprise was operationally efficient at the different marketer categories with the cattle dealers being the most operationally efficient closely followed by the retailers and the brokers.

DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF BEEF

At present, the Fulanis provide over 85 per cent of Nigerian meat supplies. However, their nomadic system of production is increasingly coming under pressure from rapidly changing social, economic and political situations as Nigeria develops. For example, the proliferation of states, the opening of huge areas of land by River Basin Development Authorities for irrigated agriculture, the development of new cities like Abuja, the new Federal Capital, and the land use Act which failed to recognized the rights of the Fulani herdsmen to transient usage of land for grazing, all serve to make nomadism increasingly untenable as a method of cattle production. Unfortunately, we do not have at present a viable alternative in place, as most government and private beef production projects, making use of modern methods, are yet to make an appreciable impact. The national meat supply position is very critical. The situation appears to be deteriorating with time. But for the needed support given in the form of massive importation of meat and meat products in recent years, the national meat shortage situation would have attained a crisis dimension (Oyenuga 1982). Beef accounts for more than 50 per cent of Nigeria’s total meat supply. Although it has always been difficult to specify by number or by its proportion of the national herd, it is, nevertheless, know that, a significant portion of the locally produced beef derived from trade cattle from Nigeria’s neighbours like Chad, Niger and Cameroon. This has significantly reduced the acute beef shortage that would have been experienced if Nigeria had relied entirely on her resources for meat supply. Nigeria with a population of over 180 million people requires several heads of cattle to satisfy its demand for cattle and cattle products. With more than 80% of the cattle population in the hands of traditional pastoralists, the supply cannot match the demand. To bridge the gap, cattle importation is used. The imported figures as at January 1996 was 5,142 heads (Usman, & Nasiru, 2005), cattle off-take rate was estimated at 12% per annum starting from the base year. This was found to be 1,673,640 heads of cattle as at 1990, 1,759,091 for 2004 and is projected to be 1,769,672 by 2010. Furthermore, the beef equivalent per annum was also estimated. This was found to be 209,205,000kg as at 1990, 219,886,378kg by 2004 and is expected to reach 221,208,999kg by the year 2010. The low figures may be attributed to the slow growth rate, poor conception rate, delayed age at first calving, long calving interval and low carcass yield of our traditional breeds coupled with extensive traditional management. According to Usman and Nasiru (2005), the average price trend of cattle in Northern Nigeria ranges from N20,272 to N22,342 for a steer, whereas that of a cow averages N16,206 and N19,773 by January to December 1996, respectively. As of 2005, the average price of a steer was N35,000 while that of a cow was N30,000. This shows an increase of 313% for steers and 152% for the cows which indicated that the former fetches more money than the latter.

CONCLUSION

To human population, there is now the tendency for a shortage of cattle population per se, since within recent years human population have grown faster than cattle population. However, the major constraint to a sufficient supply of beef is the low carcass quality of Nigerian cattle. Breeds of Nigerian cattle, in common with others indigenous to Africa, grow slowly, taking three to four years to reach sexual maturity and attain slaughter weight, with a dressing percentage of between 50 and 55. The calving intervals take from eighteen to twenty-four months; calving rate is put at 53% (Oyenuga, 1982). They are slow converters of vegetable feeds into animal products. High calf mortality of up to 20%, cow culling rates of 10% with a replacement rate of 15%. Cow to bull ratio is usually high, making only a small proportion of younger bulls available for slaughter. Cow slaughter weight of the larger breeds average 250kg.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The cattle industry should now and shortly call for modern profit-oriented business enterprising with the injection of large capital outlay to minimize, by 2000AD, the huge amount of money which would have been spent on foreign exchange for massive beef importation. The objective must be in each herd to select more productive breeds with lower calving age, higher calving frequencies, increased number of mature females with a maximum calf-crop per annum. Reduction of mortality in all age groups in the herd particularly in the young animals, thus rapidly building up the number in the herd and thereby improving the annual off-take rates and carcass weights. Such farms must develop the strategy for improving the proportion of fodder and feed used for maintenance and production to improve the overall feed efficiency. Improved range management, water supplies and disease control are essential ingredients for modern cattle production.